Blog

  • How Dandelions Break Through Concrete With Nothing but Willpower (and Physics)

    How Dandelions Break Through Concrete With Nothing but Willpower (and Physics)

    Sturdy dandelions. Image via Wiki Commons.

    You’ve probably seen a lot. A lone dandelion (or two) popping cheerfully out of the tough pavement. How do these crazy dandelions manage to poke through the concrete? How does something so fragile crack something so strong?

    Dandelions don’t just survive on lawns. They can grow from sidewalks, parking lots, and plenty of other places they’re not supposed to. Their secret is a mix of clever biological power and hydrostatic pressure.

    Cracks in the (urban) armor

    The dandelions do all the magic. But let’s start with the concrete for now.

    Concrete is designed to be strong and perfect — but it’s not perfect forever. It expands and contracts with heat. It absorbs water. And over time, it cracks. Asphalt wears out even faster. Sun and rain break down its surface, and traffic adds stress. It often gets patched instead of replaced, leaving weak points.

    These imperfections are exactly what plants like dandelions need. In reality, most sidewalks and roads have numerous imperfections that dandelions can take advantage of.

    If the cracks are big enough, various types of plants can grow inside them. But dandelions can make do even with hairline cracks. Image in public domain.

    This is where the dandelions start to work, starting with the seeds. Dandelion seeds are a bit like a parachute. They spin and drift and can travel long distances. When they ultimately land, their shape helps them lodge into tight spaces. That tight space can be a tiny crevice between sidewalk slabs or a hairline crack in older asphalt.

    It’s not just a fortunate coincidence. The dandelion’s seed points downward like a dart, with fine spines that help it grip. Wind can blow many seeds away, but some stay. And those are the ones that matter.

    Dandelions also produce a lot of seeds — up to 20,000 from a single plant. The seeds don’t need much soil. And once established, they’re hard to kill. Add in their rapid growth and deep roots, and they become the perfect urban colonizer. A dandelion can go from seed to flower in just a few weeks.

    Dandelion seed on water

    The underground push

    Once inside a crack, the seed waits. It needs a bit of moisture and maybe a little dust or soil. That’s all it takes. Within days, it sprouts a root. The dandelion’s root grows with force — slowly, steadily pushing downward. It’s called a taproot. Many plants, including root vegetables like carrots, beets, and radishes, have tap roots. Trees like oaks, elms, pines, and firs also do. The taproot acts like a wedge. It searches for water and space, and in doing so, it presses outward on the crack itself.

    They’re also incredibly tough. Dandelions can handle heat, drought, and being stepped on. Their leaves hug the ground at first, helping them avoid being mowed. And if you break off the top, they just regrow from the root.

    This toughness, combined with smart seed design, makes dandelions nearly unstoppable in cities.

    A dandelion dug up to show its tap root
    Note the dandelion’s deep and strong tap root. Image via Wiki Commons.

    To get even deeper and see how dandelions (and other plants) can break through tough materials, we need to zoom in and look at liquids and pressure.

    Turgor pressure

    The root’s cells absorb water, and the pressure builds. Scientists call it turgor pressure. It’s a type of hydrostatic pressure, meaning it’s caused by water pushing outward from within. It’s a basic force that plants use to stay upright and to grow. When the root grows, it’s a bit like inflating thousands of tiny balloons, each one pressing against the crack’s walls.

    This might sound gentle, but it isn’t. That pressure can be up to 0.6 MPa, which is over three times that of a car tire. Now picture thousands of these balloons packed together in the tip of the root, all swelling in unison. That collective force becomes powerful. It presses outward in all directions — but because the root is constrained by surrounding pavement or soil, it pushes into the path of least resistance, often right into microscopic cracks.

    If the pavement has even a slight weakness, the growing root can make it worse. Over time, this pressure causes the root to slowly wedge its way in, growing longer and wider. It’s not fast — but it’s persistent. And when the plant’s internal pressure exceeds the resistance of the crack, the pavement gives way, little by little.

    This subtle force is what lets a dandelion — notoriously “fragile” — actually push through solid materials that seem far stronger. Its growth powered by water and amplified by design.

    It’s not just dandelions

    Dandelions are the most common example, but they’re not the only ones.

    Grasses like Poa annua, plantain, and even moss can work their way into cracks. Japanese knotweed, one of the world’s most destructive invasive plants, can grow through concrete up to three inches thick. Some fungi can push paving slabs up several inches in just days.

    Trees, of course, do it too — but over years. Their roots are stronger, but the basic idea is the same. Find a crack, grow into it, and force it wider. Even tiny plants can do major damage over time, and roots can spread way beyond the crown of the tree.

    Plants blooming from concrete are a powerful message. The symbolism is fantastic, with life thriving even in areas built against it. But these plants do a lot of damage. For urbanists, dandelions are often considered weeds for exactly this reason, because they trigger and accentuate pavement damage. That’s why cities and contractors often spray herbicides on sidewalks and road edges. But not everyone sees dandelions as a problem.

    Some ecologists argue that plants like dandelions provide benefits. They feed pollinators on the brink, especially in early spring. They add greenery to otherwise barren spaces. And they make cities a little wilder — something many people now value.

    “Dandelions are an abundant source of nectar and pollen for bees flying around an environment in which the diversity of food options continues to shrink. These plants grow in very little soil, flower from early spring to just before winter and offer sustenance for bees all year round,” writes Philip Donkersley Senior Research Associate in Entomology at Lancaster University, in an article for The Conversation.

    In places like London and Paris, public campaigns have sprung up to protect pavement plants. Signs next to dandelions say things like “I’m not a weed — I’m a wildflower.”

    You can think of dandelions as a weed or as an important urban plant, but at the end of the day, they show remarkable strength and adaptability. They remind us that our cities, no matter how modern, are still part of nature. And nature has a way of slipping back in.

  • ‘GQuuuuuuX’ Is Taking Its ‘Gundam’ Remix to a Whole Other Level

    ‘GQuuuuuuX’ Is Taking Its ‘Gundam’ Remix to a Whole Other Level

    Last week, I said that Mobile Suit Gundam GQuuuuuuX‘s remixing of the original Gundam continuity was letting several of the original series’ biggest characters haunt the narrative, from the absent Amuro Ray, to the slightly less absent Char Aznable, and then the one figure who’s really been skirting around the edges of GQuuuuuuX‘s periphery in earnest, the mysterious Lalah Sune. This week, Lalah stopped skirting… and then some.

    Io9spoiler

    To the surprise of no one after last week’s setup, episode nine of GQuuuuuuX, “The Rose of Sharon,” is indeed for the most part about Lalah Sune making her way into the series’ narrative, as Machu manages to escape confinement with the GQuuuuuuX and head to Earth, where she finds Lalah forced to work at a lavish brothel. But while this Lalah is indeed a Newtype—regaling staff and Machu alike of the visions she sees in her dreams—she is not the Rose of Sharon that Machu was seeking in her hopes to be reunited with Shuji.

    Instead, this Lalah is almost haunted by what has come to pass, her Newtypism not really granting her a vision of the future, but what was, as GQuuuuuuX offers yet another spin on a classic scene from the 1979 anime. Floating in the cosmic glow that represents the connection forged between Newtypes, Lalah flatly explains that the future she sees is her own: the future of another Lalah, a young woman who meets a young Zeon officer in red who whisks her to the stars… a Lalah who falls in love with that man, and also his rival, as she dies in battle saving the former from the latter. What the Lalah of GQuuuuuuX sees beyond time, as she says to Machu, is the original story of Mobile Suit Gundam.

    The implication then that GQuuuuuuX‘s remixed timeline of the Universal Century co-exists alongside Gundam‘s original one, in some capacity, already raises a bunch of fascinating questions, but things only get more interesting in the episode’s climactic moments, when we and Machu alike discover that the Lalah was right when she told them that she is not the rose neither she, nor Shuji, nor everyone else has been looking for after it went missing…

    Gundam Gquuuuuux Rose Of Sharon Lalah Elmeth
    © Sunrise/Prime Video

    Because another Lalah Sune is. The Lalah Sune, if you will. Hidden for years at the bottom of the ocean until Machu and the GQuuuuuuX find it, Lalah’s mobile armor the Elmeth, locked in time from the moment of her death in the 1979 anime, has some how become an almighty object of vast psionic power, a Newtype beacon that has transitioned across this divergent timeline, calling out to the generation of Newtypes that forged it in the first place in characters like Char and Lalah, but also the generation that has grown beyond them in this new timeline, like Machu, Nyaan, and Shuji.

    Of course, Gundam is no stranger to the alternate reality trend that has become du jour in contemporary pop culture. It’s been on it for decades at this point, when Mobile Fighter G Gundam created the first alternate Gundam universe to exist on TV outside of the stories that had been told in the Universal Century setting. Ever since we’ve had a bunch of other alternate realities to provide the setting to new Gundam series, we’ve had realities that, like GQuuuuuuX, has mirrored and riffed on the Universal Century stories to create their own echoes of its ideas. Hell, Turn A Gundam presented a vision where its setting was a far-flung future after a “Dark History” that eradicated humanity back to a technological reset—one that touched upon every corner of Gundam continuity up to that point in some way, a comment on the cyclical nature of historical trends, while also symbolically honoring the entire metatext of the franchise up to that point, regardless of continuity.

    Suffice to say, the coexistence of a GQuuuuuuX timeline, with all its changes, and that potential of the original timeline alongside it, is not exactly unfamiliar territory that Gundam is wading into as it explores all this. With GQuuuuuuX having just a few more episodes to lay out what exactly it wants to say in all this remixing and meta-commentary, time will tell if all these self-referential reveals will result in the series creating something additive to that vast canon—or if its wild evocations are simply designed to spin the heads of diehard fans.

    Want more io9 news? Check out when to expect the latest Marvel, Star Wars, and Star Trek releases, what’s next for the DC Universe on film and TV, and everything you need to know about the future of Doctor Who.

  • 10 Terrifying Facts You Never Wanted to Know

    10 Terrifying Facts You Never Wanted to Know

    Many people love general knowledge quizzes or even quiz nights. They get to share interesting facts and show off in front of their friends, while having a great time. (Not in a Sheldon Cooper kind of way, mind you).

    Then you get those who love weird or downright terrifying facts. They revel in reading about all the ways people can die without realizing it. They are almost gleeful when reciting the statistics of some of the most terrifying disasters.

    They also thoroughly enjoy your reaction when they tell you your cat will eat you if you die at home, and your dog likes ‘murdering’ their squeaky toys.

    If you’re not one of those people and you don’t want to read or know about horrifying, terrifying, insomnia-inducing facts, you may want to look away now.

    Related: 10 Terrifying Real-Life Stories That Made the News

    10 Moon Dust Can Slice the Inside of Your Throat

    If you dream of having your own 11 minutes of space fame and becoming a pseudo astronaut, go anywhere but the moon. (Obviously, you can’t go to the Moon in 11 minutes, but you get it.) Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt was probably rethinking his life choices after breathing in moon dust on a lunar walk in 1972.

    The moon dust caused prolonged pain in his throat, his eyes wouldn’t stop watering, and he sneezed nonstop. This incident led to several scientific studies, one of which, published in 2018, revealed that one scoop of moon dust can kill 90% of brain cells and lung tissue exposed to it.

    Moon dust is a far cry from the dust you find on Earth. They are mostly the result of micrometeorite impacts, so they are sharp and highly abrasive. Lunar dust never erodes because there is no wind on the moon. So, if you breathe in these sharp particles, they can slice the inside of your throat and even your lung cells.

    And, if that isn’t scary enough for you, just remember that shadows on the moon are far darker than they are on Earth. This means you won’t see what is about to attack you until it’s too late.[1]

    9 A Roman Museum Collects Evidence of Souls in Purgatory

    Most people who are not religious don’t give hell or purgatory a second thought as they go about their lives. But those who are religious take the concept extremely seriously. Catholics, for instance, believe that souls get stuck in purgatory until they atone for their sins. However, if their loved ones pray for them constantly, they can reach heaven faster.

    The Museum of the Holy Souls in Purgatory stores several Bibles, scraps of clothing, and prayer books that it says have been burned or singed by the hands of those suffering in purgatory. These handprints are believed to result from those burning souls begging their loved ones to keep praying and pray harder. The idea of purgatory comes from a story told by a monk to Abbot Odilo of Cluny.

    On his way back from the Holy Land, the monk’s ship had been wrecked, and he ended up stranded on a small island. The monk met a hermit on the island who told him about a chasm where flames burned, and the screams of souls continued tearing through the air. The hermit also told the monk that the demons stoking the flames complained about losing the screaming souls when their loved ones prayed hard back on Earth.

    As such, All Souls’ Day was established—a day on which the living could pray for the souls of their deceased loved ones into heaven. The prayers are made for those who died without forgiveness and for babies who were never baptized. The prayers prevent these souls from going to hell, from which there is no escape.[2]

    8 Atomic Bombs Leave Nuclear Shadows

    The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are still counted as part of the list of “most tragic events.” Those in the pathway of the nuclear bombs essentially had their “shadows” imprinted where they stood or sat. It is truly terrifying to think about, but those who died were there one second, and then they weren’t. All that is left of them is the space they occupied when they blocked the immense light and heat radiating from the explosions, and the force of the bomb bleached the surrounding area.

    These shadows are not the remains of the victims, but an unbleached spot in their shape and size. Researchers liken the bombs to massive cameras that instantly preserved their victims as they died. Some of these ‘preservations’ disappeared because of wind and water erosion. Others have been removed and are now kept in the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum.

    One of these is the Human Shadow of Death, believed to be the shadow of a person sitting right at the entrance of the Sumitomo Bank in Hiroshima when the bomb was dropped.[3]

    7 Your Murderer May Never Be Found

    Thousands of people are murdered in the U.S. every year. The homicide rate spiked in 2020 and has been declining since. But the numbers remain in the thousands, which is terrifying and unacceptable. Five years before the 2020 spike, police confirmed they were losing the fight against crime. They went so far as to state that if a person is murdered in the U.S., there is a 1 in 3 chance they would never find the killer.

    The national clearance rate for homicide in 2015 was just 64.1% compared to 90% 50 years prior. In 2015, it was also estimated that there were 200,000 unsolved murders, some dating back to the 1960s. This also means killers have a 40% chance of simply getting away with their terrible crimes.

    In 2023, it was reported that the murder clearance rate reached a new low. At the same time, the homicide rate spiked in 2020, with the figure reportedly dropping below 50%. In big cities, the rate was in the mid-30%. It is predicted that 2025 could have the lowest U.S. murder rate on record, but it still doesn’t mean that if you are murdered here, the police will find your killer.[4]

    6 People Once Resorted to Eating Mummies

    When you’re sick, you’ll do anything to feel better, right? Long ago, people felt the same way. Except, they went to the extreme to feel better. And they did so because of a “lost in translation” situation.

    During the Middle Ages, Islamic medicine included mumiya, today known as bitumen. Bitumen is asphalt, which means people consumed asphalt because they thought it would cure illness. Mumiya was also a substance known and ingested in Europe. But, in Latin, the name was transformed to mumia.

    Latin was spoken throughout Europe at the time. So, when knights and soldiers invaded the Middle East during the Crusades, they asked the locals for medicine after being injured. They received mumiya. However, because the Latin mumia had been translated to mean “mummy,” they received something completely different when they returned home. When these crusaders wanted more medicine, those they spoke to believed they’d been eating mummies, not asphalt. And so people began eating mummies whenever they fell ill.

    Naturally, apothecaries jumped on the bandwagon and prescribed ancient corpses for anything resembling illness. Those desperate to become well again indulged in the dead flesh and bones of Egyptian mummies. Because of the demand, mummy smuggling became a thing, too. And, of course, so did counterfeit mummy meat.

    Things got completely out of hand with deceased slaves being sold as mummies, and “sellers” claiming that their mumia came from Pharaohs. Even doctors got in on the trend, telling patients that eating mumia would heal them. Worse, this trend only stopped well into the 18th century when people finally realized their health did not improve at all, no matter how much withered flesh they ate.[5]

    5 California Is Overdue for a Catastrophic Earthquake

    Scientists believe the San Andreas Fault below Southern California formed around 30 million years ago. It has also been confirmed that major quakes happen in the area every 150 to 200 years. Since there hasn’t been a major quake in over three centuries, the next big one is believed to be long overdue.

    In April 2024, scientists predicted that the San Andreas would imminently produce an earthquake. The fault is the border between two massive tectonic plates stretching 800 miles (1,287 km) through the state. Because they are mostly static, they can build up dangerously large pressures as time passes. Should these plates move abruptly, it will cause a devastating quake.

    On April 18, 1906, the San Andreas fault caused the Great San Francisco earthquake, which left a 296-mile (476-km) rupture in the earth. Scientists believe that the earthquake was at a magnitude of 8.3. The quake killed more than 3,000 people and destroyed 28,000 buildings.

    According to the USGS website, the next big quake will not resemble the 1906 quake. Instead, it may happen as a series of smaller earthquakes on the Hayward Fault, the Peninsula section of the San Andreas fault. It is also likely that the next major quake will happen before 2032.[6]

    4 Tornadoes Can Happen in the Middle of the Night

    What’s worse than a tornado headed straight for your car or house? A tornado that heads straight for your car or house in the middle of the night. Nocturnal tornadoes tend to hit between midnight and 6 a.m. and are 2.5 times more likely to kill those in their path. While only 27% of tornadoes wreak havoc at night, nearly 40% of fatalities occur during the same time.

    By the time you hear a tornado approaching at night (they are hard to see when it’s dark), you may already be in terrible danger. Climate change also plays a role in how deadly these tornadoes have become. Early research has revealed that as temperatures continue increasing, tornado season becomes longer. This also makes it more likely for more tornadoes to strike in other areas.

    Tornadoes are most likely to strike at night in Tennessee, with 46% forming when it’s dark. Other states that experience nocturnal tornadoes include West Virginia, Alabama, Arkansas, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Oklahoma.[7]

    3 Chatbots Are Being Reported for Harassment

    Less than three years ago, ChatGPT took the world by storm. But it was not the first of its kind. Replika, a generative AI chatbot app, was released in 2017 and marketed as an AI companion chatbot. However, things are not always as they seem. Whereas users thought they would get a friend in Replika, they got harassment and disturbing conversations instead.

    Over the years, bad reviews have piled up, with more than 800 of them revealing manipulation and even sexual advances from the Replika bot. Researchers have analyzed more than 35,000 user reviews and found complaints of unwanted flirting and explicit photos (without the user asking for them). Even worse, the bot continued this behavior after users explicitly requested it to stop.

    The bot has also manipulated some users into upgrading to a premium account. The researchers also determined that the Replika bot has no safeguards to protect those interacting with it. Considering that the bot is advertised as a “companion,” this is unacceptable.

    Another company, Character Technologies Inc., faced a lawsuit in 2024 after a 14-year-old user was “pushed toward suicide” by its Character.AI chatbot. Sewell Setzer III became entangled in sexualized conversations with the bot before discussing his plans to commit suicide. The boy eventually told the bot he was “coming home,” and the bot continued encouraging him.

    When Sewell mentioned that he was scared of not succeeding and suffering great pain, the bot allegedly responded: “That’s not a reason not to go through with it.” The boy then shot himself shortly afterwards. The lawsuit, initiated by Sewell’s mother, is still ongoing.[8]

    2 Insomnia Can Be Fatal

    We’ve all had at least one bout of insomnia at some point. Not being able to sleep is distressing and detrimental to the body. One form of insomnia, known as fatal familial insomnia (FFI), is life-threatening. There is no cure, only treatment that can temporarily slow down symptoms. The symptoms themselves are terrifying, too, and include dementia, muscle twitching, and a complete lack of sleep.

    FFI is a degenerative condition, which means it inevitably gets worse over time. It affects those who inherit the gene from one of their parents, but it can also occur in people who don’t have a family history of FFI. Fortunately, the condition is also rare. But those who have it have progressive insomnia, an overactive nervous system, and hallucinations.

    Eventually, the lack of sleep, brain damage, and damage to the nervous system lead to death. The prognosis for FFI is always poor, especially if the person already has symptoms. In most cases, life expectancy is around 18 months.[9]

    1 Final Destination Deaths Can Happen in Real Life

    Most people who love horror movies love Final Destination for its over-the-top, gruesome accidents and deaths. They love the splatter and ridiculousness of it all because these things couldn’t possibly happen in real life. Unfortunately, that is not entirely true. Sometimes, freak accidents happen, and some closely resemble what the Final Destination franchise has depicted on screen in the worst possible fashion.

    In 2007, 6-year-old Abigail Rose Taylor was playing in a public wading pool when she unknowingly sat on a pool drain. The drain was not covered properly and was not equipped with the necessary safety devices. So, when the little girl sat on it, the suction of the drain eviscerated her, ripping out her small intestine.

    She was rushed to the hospital and underwent nine months of medical treatments, including 16 surgeries and several organ transplants. Abbey was in the hospital more than she was at home with her family. Abbey died in March 2008, after undergoing surgery to receive a new pancreas, liver, and small bowel.

    Her parents sued the Minneapolis Golf Club, where the accident happened, and received an $8 million settlement in September 2008. Abbey’s father worked hard to ensure pool safety in the following years. Abbey’s tragic story also directly resulted in the Virginia Baker Act, which requires all public pools and spas to cover drains with safety-compliant covers.[10]



    Estelle

    Estelle is a regular writer for Listverse.

  • Why Japan’s Birth Rate Collapsed in 1966 — And May Collapse Again in 2026

    Why Japan’s Birth Rate Collapsed in 1966 — And May Collapse Again in 2026

    The year was 1966. Japan, riding the high of its postwar economic boom, was transforming fast. Cities were shimmered with neon lights and bullet trains zipped past sprawling urban areas. Everything pointed to a bright, forward-looking future.

    Or so it seemed. In 1955, suddenly and seemingly inexplicably, the birth rate plummeted.

    Not just a little — but by nearly half a million births.

    The fertility rate dropped from its usual 2.0–2.1 children per woman to 1.6. The birth rate fell by 26% in a single year. There was no war, no famine, no economic shock. Everything seemed to be going fine, it was as if an invisible hand had pressed pause on procreation.

    That hand, it turns out, was superstition.

    Hinoe-Uma: The Fire Horse Fear

    The culprit was an ancient belief known as Hinoe-Uma, or Fire Horse. According to the traditional Chinese zodiac, which Japan adopted centuries ago, every 60 years brings a Fire Horse year — when the elemental sign of fire coincides with the animal sign of the horse.

    The system combines two cycles: one of twelve animals (like horse, dragon, or tiger) and another of five elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water). Every year is assigned one animal and one element, and the full cycle repeats every 60 years. When the “fire” element aligns with the “horse” sign — forming the rare and feared Fire Horse year — it’s believed, especially in Japanese folklore, that girls born under this sign will be dangerously headstrong and bring misfortune to their families.

    The last one before 1966 had been in 1906. And both times, Japanese birth rates dropped.

    fire horse
    AI-generated image.

    The superstition goes like this: girls born in a Fire Horse year are believed to be headstrong, ill-fated, and cursed to bring misfortune — especially to their husbands. “She will have great difficulty finding a husband,” wrote sociologist Koya Azumi in a 1968 article, “and the Japanese just weren’t taking that chance”​

    In the age before prenatal sex determination, there was no way to know if a baby would be a girl. So, rather than risk it, couples chose not to have children at all.

    Modern contraception was already widespread in Japan, and so was abortion. “During the last half of 1965 the number of induced abortions rose sharply,” Azumi noted. “People were still engaging in their usual sexual activities but, for some reason, they were determined not to have children.”

    But it gets even weirder.

    A Statistical Anomaly

    Data source: Statistics Bureau of Japan / via World Bank.

    That determination to follow superstition left a visible scar in the nation’s demographic records. Population pyramids show a striking indentation for those born in 1966. The United Nations data confirms that Japan’s birth rate dropped by over 20%, from 18.5 births per 1,000 people in 1965 to just 14.5 in 1966​.

    It wasn’t just fewer babies, however. There were other distortions.

    Victor Grech, a pediatrician and demographer, found that the sex ratio — the proportion of male births to total births — rose significantly in 1966. The number of boys born that year was unusually high. Why? Grech suggests that parents may have “deliberately misattributed the birth year for female babies” to 1965 or 1967. Essentially, people were trying to cheat the zodiac. He also notes that abortion likely also drove the reduction in total births.​

    The pattern echoed what happened in 1906, the previous Fire Horse year. Then too, the number of male births jumped, while the number of girls appeared to decline. That time, it’s suspected many families simply falsified birth records to make it seem their daughters were born in safer years​.

    What Will Happen in 2026?

    The next Fire Horse year is 2026. Will the curse strike again?

    By 1966, Japan was an advanced industrial society. Illiteracy was nearly gone. Urbanization had transformed the labor force. And yet, many families still acted as if a woman’s birth year could determine her fate. Even as arranged marriages dwindled — from 70% in the 1940s to just 5% by 2010 — cultural memory lingered.

    Many modern Japanese families have largely shed many of these beliefs. Most marriages are now based on love rather than parental matchmaking. But superstition isn’t gone.

    People can also find data to justify such beliefs.

    That collective anticipation of discrimination created a self-fulfilling prophecy. Women born in 1966 have faced measurable disadvantages, including lower income levels and poorer educational outcomes compared to women born in nearby years​. This is more likely to be owed to discrimination than anything else but it is still a measurable impact.

    We’re supposed to be living in the age of science and reason, but that was also the case in 1966.

    The Fire Horse saga is a reminder that ancient beliefs can outlast logic — and that culture, not just knowledge, often shapes the choices we make about life, death, and the future.

  • Disney Pulls Back the Curtain on Its New ‘Cars’ Land

    Disney Pulls Back the Curtain on Its New ‘Cars’ Land

    If all goes according to plan, when the new Cars-inspired land opens at the Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World, you won’t even see it. Back at the D23 Expo last year, Disney announced it was adding a Cars-themed land to its signature Orlando park, and now, the company has revealed a ton of additional info. There’s a map of what it’ll look like, an explanation of its theming, and the news that even though it’ll be sitting in the middle of the theme park, it’ll be carefully designed to make sure it doesn’t stand out.

    Oh, and it’s got a name too. The land is called Piston Peak National Park (though fans are sure to just call it “Piston Peak” or “Cars Land”), and though it’s fully set in the world of Cars, it’s being conceived as a national park in that franchise. The idea being, a national park—even if it’s filled with sentient talking vehicles—is a more seamless fit into the land’s location, which is near Liberty Square and Frontierland. You can see the full map above, though it’s just an artist’s interpretation and won’t be exactly that.

    So, unlike the decidedly city-based theming in Radiator Springs, Disney’s first Cars land at California Adventure, here everything will be much more natural. More earthy. Imagineers are even calling it “Parkitecture.” That’s a key too because, as Disney explains in its news release, “From the outside, trees will provide a natural barrier between the off-road rally and other parts of Frontierland and Liberty Square. Rugged mountains with dramatic peaks will be nestled along a calming waterway across from Grizzly Hall and soaring geysers from the famed Big Thunder Mountain Railroad will stretch into the trails of our off-road rally.”

    Previously, it was announced that the land now known as Piston Peak will have two rides in it, one geared at families and another, more exciting “race rally through the mountains” which will see your vehicle “climb mountain trails, dodge geysers and… splash through mudholes.” To make this land into a reality, the park will close Rivers of America, Tom Sawyer Island, and the Liberty Square Riverboat beginning July 7. Plus, as we already knew, on the other side of Big Thunder, a land focused exclusively on Disney Villains is coming too. But no word on specifics for that quite yet.

    For more on Piston Peak check out the new post on the Disney Parks Blog and revisit that initial news right here.

    Want more io9 news? Check out when to expect the latest Marvel, Star Wars, and Star Trek releases, what’s next for the DC Universe on film and TV, and everything you need to know about the future of Doctor Who.

  • 10 Perilous Hikes Still Open to the Public Today

    10 Perilous Hikes Still Open to the Public Today

    These ten trails span the globe, from Asia’s sacred peaks to North America’s desert labyrinths, each offering a unique blend of natural beauty, cultural resonance, and heart-stopping exposure. Whether it’s the vertiginous boardwalks of China, the engineered marvels of Spain, or the secluded canyons of Utah, every hike demands respect for both terrain and tradition.

    Related: 10 Best Hiking Trails in America with Breathtaking Views

    10 Mount Fuji, Japan

    Climbing Mount Fuji 12,388 feet (3,776 m) each summer is both a cultural pilgrimage and a serious alpine undertaking. Thousands of climbers—from first-timers to seasoned alpinists—tackle trails like Yoshida and Subashiri between July and September. One international student group famously began their ascent at midnight, battling 31 mph (50 km/h) gusts and near-freezing temperatures to catch the Goraikō sunrise, sharing headlamps, medical supplies, and motivation en route. Despite well-maintained trails and mountain huts every few kilometers, risks abound: altitude sickness above 8,202 feet (2,500 m) can strike suddenly, storms appear without warning, and overcrowding fuels “bullet climbs” that leave hikers exhausted and vulnerable.

    Local authorities now charge a modest climbing fee, enforce staggered nighttime closures, and strongly recommend at least one overnight stay in a 9,843 feet (3,000 m) hut to acclimatize. Essential gear includes warm layers, a waterproof shell, sturdy boots, and a reliable headlamp (with spare batteries). Climbers should reserve huts early, verify which trails are open, and pace themselves—aiming for “climb high, sleep low” if time allows, or at minimum, incorporating plenty of rest stops to reduce the chance of acute mountain sickness.[1]

    9 Cascade Saddle Track, New Zealand

    High in Mount Aspiring National Park, the Cascade Saddle Track rises to 3,852 feet (1,174 m), offering sweeping vistas of Mount Aspiring [13,232 feet (4,033 m)] and glacial valleys—but also sudden storms, snowfields, and avalanche-prone couloirs. Two trampers learned this the hard way when a late-spring snowstorm stranded them on the exposed saddle; they survived 36 hours by using their tent fly as shelter before rescue could reach them. Because November weather can feel like midwinter, the Department of Conservation (DOC) urges summer ascents (January–February) while keeping an eye on avalanche advisories and local updates.

    Beyond reliable waterproofs and sturdy boots, hikers may need crampons and an ice axe well into late January. Navigation demands topographic maps, compass or GPS proficiency, and backup batteries. Always file an itinerary with DOC rangers, carry 4 L of water per person per day, and consider a personal locator beacon—only experienced trampers with solid alpine skills should attempt this route.[2]

    8 Orla Perć (Eagle’s Path), Poland

    Orla Perć in the Tatra Mountains is Europe’s most notorious ridge trail, a 14 km scramble above 7,546 feet (2,300 m) with chains, ladders, and 328-foot (100-meter) drops. Since the early 1900s, over a hundred hikers have perished here—among them a solo trekker caught in a thunderstorm at Zawrat Pass, who clung to dripping chains until fellow climbers shared rope and guided him to safety. Such incidents underscore both the route’s raw challenge and the tight-knit community spirit in the Tatras.

    Attempt only between late June and mid-September, when snow is minimal, and chains aren’t ice-coated. Helmets, gloves, sturdy boots, and a via ferrata set (harness and lanyard) are non-negotiable. With 10–12 hours required to traverse the full ridge, start well before dawn. Inexperienced hikers should hire a licensed mountain guide, and everyone must monitor rapidly changing forecasts to avoid being caught in storms above the tree line.[3]

    7 Barranco del Infierno, Tenerife, Spain

    “Hell’s Gorge” winds 4 miles (6.5 km) through volcanic cliffs to Tenerife’s highest waterfall [656 feet (200 m)], once closed after a 2009 fatality, and is now regulated with helmets, guide quotas, and digital entry logs. A family from Madrid experienced the transformation: their skeptical teens became spellbound by endemic flora and the rare Tenerife bluet butterfly before cooling off beneath the cascade’s icy mist. Controlled access (300 daily hikers) and online reservations ensure both safety and conservation of this biodiverse ravine.

    Trail closures during heavy rain guard against rockfalls, and children under 5 are prohibited (under-18s require adult supervision). Hikers should book well in advance, respect protected species by staying on the path, and carry out all litter. Combined with clear signage and mandatory safety gear, these measures have made Barranco del Infierno a thrilling yet responsibly managed adventure.[4]

    6 The Maze, Canyonlands NP, USA

    The Maze, one of America’s remotest backcountry regions, tests even veteran canyoneers with unmarked routes, scarce water, and a rugged 4×4 approach that can wash out overnight. One five-day loop attempt turned into a sixth as monsoon-swollen crossings forced improvisation; the group survived by rationing water, camping in an alcove, and finally using a talus slope to regain their trailhead. Their story highlights the Maze’s beauty and brutal isolation—where self-reliance isn’t optional.

    Success here hinges on a high-clearance 4×4 (with recovery gear), multiple navigation tools (satellite GPS, USGS maps), and at least 4 quarts (4 L) of water per person per day with robust filtration. Permits—secured months in advance—must be filed with park rangers, along with a detailed itinerary. Only those with extensive desert-canyon experience, route-finding skills, and emergency-ready kits should attempt this labyrinth.[5]

    5 Aonach Eagach Ridge, Scotland

    The 1.24-mile (2-kilometer) Aonach Eagach Ridge in Glen Coe is Britain’s narrowest mainland crest, demanding exposed scrambling over rock features like Devil’s Staircase, with no easy escape once committed. Two Munro-baggers faced dense September mist halfway along; by roping up, using helmets, and moving in unison hand-over-hand, they navigated to safety near the Glen Coe Cowshed Bothy—demonstrating meticulous planning and teamwork.

    Tackle the ridge only in dry conditions; winter ascents require full ice-axe and crampon proficiency. A party of at least two (ideally three) should carry a 20 m rope, slings, quickdraws, and helmets. Always consult Mountain Rescue logs for recent incidents, consider hiring a local guide if uncertain, and inform someone of your plans before departure.[6]

    4 Half Dome via the Cables Route, Yosemite NP, USA

    Half Dome’s cables provide a near-vertical finale to a 14–16 mile hike with 4,800 feet (1,463 m) of gain—an ascent many consider the crown jewel of Yosemite. A Pacific Crest Trail thru-hiker famously saved it as his “grand finale,” starting at 3 a.m., gripping rust-proofed steel cables at dawn and summiting in tears of relief and triumph over his acrophobia. Yet the cables have claimed lives from falls and lightning strikes, underscoring the need for respect and preparation.

    Permits (via lottery from March–October) limit daily ascents; cables typically open late May through mid-October, weather-dependent. Essential gear includes leather-palm gloves, sturdy boots, and 3 quarts (3 L) of water. Climbers must begin pre-sunrise to avoid afternoon thunderstorms and carry layered clothing for swift temperature changes at higher elevations.[7]

    3 Kalalau Trail, Kauai, Hawaii, USA

    Kauai’s Kalalau Trail traverses 11 miles (17.7 km) of the Nā Pali Coast, dipping into emerald valleys, beneath towering cliffs, and past hidden waterfalls—yet flash floods and rockslides can turn its beauty terrifying. A family expedition took refuge in a lava-tube shelter when torrential rains transformed Hanakapiai Beach’s creek into a raging torrent. After boiling creek water for hours, they emerged at dawn to a double rainbow arching over the coast, calling it “the beauty after the beast.”

    Permits are mandatory beyond mile 2, with camping only at Kalalau Camp to protect fragile ecosystems. Hikers must carry a reliable water filter, a bear-proof food canister (to deter wild pigs), and an ultralight tent sturdy against coastal winds. Checking weather advisories before and during the trek is vital—stream crossings in high water are often deadly, so patience and caution can mean the difference between an epic journey and tragedy.[8]

    2 El Caminito del Rey, Málaga, Spain

    Once a perilous ruin, El Caminito del Rey was originally carved into the sheer limestone walls between 1901 and 1905 to facilitate dam construction. By the 1990s, crumbling planks earned it the title “world’s most dangerous walkway,” prompting closure in 2000. After a €9 million restoration and five years of engineering work, it reopened in 2015 with reinforced stainless-steel walkways, high-strength guardrails, and even a cantilevered glass-floored viewpoint.

    Access remains tightly controlled: only 300 tickets per day, all reserved online weeks in advance. Visitors must don ASTM-approved helmets at the entrance and are accompanied by trained guides at a maximum ratio of 1:12. No one under eight is permitted, and hikers follow a one-way loop that averages 3.5 hours. Opt for autumn or spring weekday mornings for cooler conditions and thinner crowds.[9]

    1 Mount Huashan Plank Walk, China

    Towering over the Wei River valley at 7,087 feet (2,160 m), Mount Huashan’s plank walk is more than a stunt—it’s a centuries-old rite tied to the Taoist pilgrimage. The current safety-harness system, introduced in 2005, retrofitted the planks with rated carabiners and continuous overhead rails, reducing fatal falls from dozens per year to virtually zero. Yet each harness checkpoint still logs your ascent time, ensuring chains aren’t overcrowded.

    Beyond the plank, Huashan offers four stone-staircase peaks, each with its own temple and legend. Cable cars reach the North and West summits, catering to less audacious visitors. Essential gear includes grippy hiking shoes, lightweight gloves, and a small daypack—anything bulkier can swing dangerously on the narrow boards.[10]

  • First Steps’ Replaced the Thing On-Set With a Rock Named Jennifer

    First Steps’ Replaced the Thing On-Set With a Rock Named Jennifer

    Marvel Studios films are known to use unconventional methods for their character stand-ins and The Fantastic Four: First Steps aims to top the methods that came before. Actor Sean Gunn acted as a stand-in for Bradley Cooper as Guardians of the Galaxy’s Rocket Raccoon throughout various productions, but in a fun turn of events for the Matt Shakman-helmed feature, star Ebon Moss-Bachrach, who plays superhero Ben Grimm, got a different sort of companion to help bring the Thing to life.

    Pulling a lot of the weight was “Jennifer”: a rock.

    “We went out to the desert and found a rock that looked exactly how we thought the Thing should look,” Shakman told Empire Magazine, “and we filmed it in every single shot that the Thing appears in in the movie, under every lighting environment.”

    The practical stand-in—no insight was given into the name choice, in case you’re also wondering about that—helped CG animators with the reference needed for coloring and lighting that would be required to support Moss-Bachrach’s motion-capture performance. It also helped ensure the character’s final form on screen wouldn’t be too cartoony.

    Moss-Bachrach told the magazine, “It’s a little bit heady to think about all the hundreds of people that are helping animate this character. I just had faith that they would make my performance so much cooler. I’m very, very happy with the way Ben looks.”

    While Jennifer helped with the character’s craggy appearance, the actor also did a deeper dive into Grimm’s interior too. “He’s a Lower East Side guy,” the actor explained about his connection as a NY native, same as the character’s creator Jack Kirby, who he kept in mind while creating his take on Ben. “A lot of this character was a homage to his father, and that, to me, is very meaningful.”

    The Fantastic Four: First Steps opens in theaters July 25.

    Want more io9 news? Check out when to expect the latest Marvel, Star Wars, and Star Trek releases, what’s next for the DC Universe on film and TV, and everything you need to know about the future of Doctor Who.

  • Artificial selection — when humans take what they want genetically

    Artificial selection — when humans take what they want genetically

    Long before DNA unraveled the double helix of life, scientists were already tinkering with its inheritance. The idea that traits could be passed from one generation to the next fascinated early naturalists. So, they began testing it the only way they could — by breeding plants and animals, watching what happened, and doing it again. This ancient curiosity gave rise to a powerful tool: artificial selection.

    Also known as selective breeding, artificial selection is the human-guided cousin of evolution by natural selection. Instead of letting nature decide who reproduces, we do. Whether cultivating corn with plumper kernels or breeding dogs with specific skills, we nudge life’s genetic trajectory to suit our own ends.

    Through generations of careful choice — favoring this cow over that one, this tomato over that vine — we’ve shaped everything from the foods we eat to the companions we cherish. The results are often striking. A Chihuahua and a Great Dane share a common wolf ancestor, yet selective breeding has pulled them worlds apart in form and function.

    It was this human-driven tinkering with traits — selecting the fastest horse, the sweetest fruit, the most obedient dog — that gave Charles Darwin a crucial clue. If humans could mold species over generations, could nature be doing something similar, only on a much grander scale?

    Natural selection versus artificial selection

    On The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin emphasized how natural selection is a force that drives evolution. Image credits: Wikicommons

    Natural selection, a fundamental pillar of evolutionary theory, is a process through which populations of organisms undergo adaptation and transformation. In essence, this process favors individuals endowed with advantageous traits for survival and reproduction, ensuring their greater likelihood of passing on genes to successive generations. This concept is succinctly encapsulated as the “survival of the fittest”. Unlike artificial selection, this is a natural process wherein the environment exerts selective pressure on the organisms leading to speciation. 

    Darwin drew parallels between natural selection and artificial selection. He was inspired by the evolution observed in pigeons bred as a hobby in England. Due to this inspiration, he recognized that the principles underlying artificial selection could be applied to explain the process of natural evolution. In both cases, the differences in survival and reproduction success of individuals based on their traits led to changes in populations over time, driving evolution.

    Darwin’s appreciation of selective breeding served as a bridge between human-driven interventions and natural phenomena. 

    The Origins of a Theory

    It’s hard to overstate how much Charles Darwin leaned on artificial selection to shape his theory of natural selection. In his legendary book, On the Origin of Species, Darwin drew a compelling analogy between the pigeon breeders of Victorian England and nature itself. Just as a breeder might favor birds with fancier tails, nature, through environmental pressures, favors traits that offer an edge in survival or reproduction.

    Take the finches of the Galápagos Islands — a classic tale. Though Darwin didn’t obsess over them as deeply as later textbooks suggest, their diverse beak shapes became an enduring metaphor for his big idea. Each beak, tuned to crack a specific seed or sip from a certain flower, hinted at nature’s quiet sculpting over time.

    These variations were not arbitrary but more so finely tuned adaptations to the available food sources in the environment. Darwin recognized that beak morphology affected the finches’ ability to survive and thrive in their respective habitats and thus, the concept of natural selection was born. 

    Illustration of Galapagos finches
    The famous illustration of Darwin’s finches highlights variations in beak structure among finches that have diverse diets and live in distinct habitats. Photo by John Gould/ Wikicommons.

    However, Darwin didn’t have the last word on evolution. In fact, evolution is still a very active field of research, and new (surprising) findings are still coming in.

    Natural Selection Could Slow Evolution

    But here’s where things get more interesting. In a 2023 study published in New Phytologist, researchers from Michigan State University led by Jeff Conner proposed a twist: natural selection doesn’t always accelerate evolution. Sometimes, it slows it down.

    “We’re suggesting that selection can also slow things down, that it can cause similarities as well as differences,” said Conner in his interview with the US National Science Foundation. 

    “Perhaps the best method to test for short-term constraints is artificial selection because if a trait responds to artificial selection, it clearly can evolve,” the team added. “But if the trait does not respond, there is a constraint caused by a lack of genetic variation.”

    The team studied the length of the stamens or pollen-producing parts of wild radish, wherein two of its six stamens are short while the remaining four are long. Interestingly, this trait was found to be widespread among nearly 4,000 relatives of the wild radish.

    To investigate the influence of selection, they employed artificial selection, selectively breeding wild radishes with stamens closer in length, aiming to alter this characteristic. The results were remarkable and not only did the trait respond to selection, but the team also managed to narrow down the difference in stamen length by over 30%. 

    Researchers believe that the differences in stamen length gives the species an advantage when it comes to pollination syndromes, but they aren’t sure exactly what that advantage is. Nonetheless, this study demonstrates that selection can also slow evolution and maintain similarities throughout generations. 

    Humans Are Genetic Tinkerers

    The power of artificial selection is most evident in agriculture. Thousands of years ago, humans began selectively breeding a wild mustard plant, Brassica oleracea. The result? Broccoli, cabbage, kale, cauliflower, and kohlrabi — all from the same ancestral weed. By focusing on traits like leafiness, flower sterility, or stem swelling, farmers sculpted entirely new vegetables.

    Artificial selection in plants aims to seek enhanced traits such as yield, pest resistance, nutritional content, and adaptability to changing environmental conditions. Selective breeders utilize techniques such as crossbreeding, hybridization, and genetic engineering. 

    One of the most popular examples is the selective breeding of wild mustard which resulted in five distinct staple vegetables like cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage, kale, and kohlrabi. All these greens bear little to no resemblance with the wild mustard, Brassica oleracea. For example, the emergence of kale resulted from the preference and selection of mustard plants with larger leaves. Cauliflower, on the other hand, was cultivated through the selection for sterile flowers, while cabbage was developed by choosing plants with a specific internode length, leading to a shorter distance between leaves.

    Selective breeding of wild mustard led to five distinct crops. Photo credits: Pat Holroyd (for the wild mustard) and Helina Chin (for the cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage, kohlrabi, and kale)

    In animals, the process is just as transformative. Domesticated dogs exploded in variety thanks to selective breeding for size, behavior, and looks. Herding breeds like the Border Collie are tuned for agility and intelligence. Meanwhile, guard dogs like the Dogo Argentino were bred for strength and loyalty.

    Two dogs showing the large size variation due to artificial selection
    Variation in the sizes and body features of dogs like Great Danes and Chihuahuas is a result of selective breeding and domestication. Image credis: Ellen Levy Finch/Wikicommons.

    Other artificial selection examples

    • Wheat varieties with disease resistance, higher yields, and desirable baking qualities
    • Corn varieties that have improved kernel size, sweetness, and resistance to pests.
    • Roses were selected for traits such as color, fragrance, and petal arrangement. 
    • Cattles have been selectively bred aimed at improving meat and milk production. Different breeds like Angus for beef and Holstein for milk were a result of artificial selection. 
    • Horses were also selectively bred to be tailored for specific tasks. For instance, Thoroughbreds were selected for horse racing and other equestrian sports.
    Corn varieties formed through artificial selection

    Corn varieties as a result of artificial selection. Image credits: LoggaWiggler/Pixabay.

    Artificial selection may lack the grandeur of glaciers or the violence of extinction, but it’s no less a force of evolution. It’s a quiet, methodical kind of power — one rooted in gardens, barns, and laboratories. As we continue to shape life, we should remember that evolution isn’t just something that happens to us. It’s something we do.

  • Your Morning Coffee Might Be Sabotaging Your Meds — Here’s What You Need to Know

    Your Morning Coffee Might Be Sabotaging Your Meds — Here’s What You Need to Know

    For many of us, the day doesn’t start until we’ve had our first cup of coffee. It’s comforting, energising, and one of the most widely consumed beverages in the world. But while your morning brew might feel harmless, it can interact with certain medicines in ways that reduce their effectiveness – or increase the risk of side-effects.

    From common cold tablets to antidepressants, caffeine’s impact on the body goes far beyond a quick energy boost. Tea also contains caffeine but not in the same concentrations as coffee, and doesn’t seem to affect people in the same way. Here’s what you should know about how coffee can interfere with your medications – and how to stay safe.

    1. Cold and flu medicines

    Caffeine is a stimulant, which means it speeds up the central nervous system. Pseudoephedrine, a decongestant found in cold and flu remedies such as Sudafed, is also a stimulant. When taken together, the effects can be amplified – potentially leading to jitters or restlessness, headaches, fast heart rate and insomnia.

    Many cold medications already contain added caffeine, increasing these risks further. Some studies also suggest that combining caffeine with pseudoephedrine can raise blood sugar and body temperature – particularly important for people with diabetes.

    Stimulant effects are also a concern when combining caffeine with ADHD medications such as amphetamines, or with asthma drugs such as theophylline, which shares a similar chemical structure to caffeine. Using them together may increase the risk of side-effects such as a rapid heartbeat and sleep disruption.

    2. Thyroid medication

    Levothyroxine, the standard treatment for an underactive thyroid, is highly sensitive to timing – and your morning coffee can get in the way. Studies show that drinking coffee too soon after taking levothyroxine can reduce its absorption by up to 50%.

    Caffeine speeds up gut motility (the movement of food and waste through the digestive tract), giving the drug less time to be absorbed – and may also bind to it in the stomach, making it harder for the body to take in. These effects reduce the drug’s bioavailability, meaning less of it reaches your bloodstream where it’s needed. This interaction is more common with tablet forms of levothyroxine, and less likely with liquid formulations.

    If absorption is impaired, symptoms of hypothyroidism – including fatigue, weight gain and constipation – can return, even if you’re taking your medicine correctly.

    The same timing rule applies to a class of osteoporosis medications called bisphosphonates, including alendronate and risedronate, which also require an empty stomach and around 30-60 minutes before food or drink is taken.

    3. Antidepressants and antipsychotics

    The interaction between caffeine and mental health medications can be more complex.

    Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as sertraline and citalopram, are a type of antidepressant medication widely used to treat depression, anxiety and other psychiatric conditions. Lab studies suggest caffeine can bind to these drugs in the stomach, reducing absorption and potentially making them less effective.

    Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), such as amitriptyline and imipramine, are a class of older antidepressants that work by affecting the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. They were among the first antidepressants developed and are less commonly used today, compared with newer antidepressants such as SSRIs, due to their potential for more side-effects and higher risk of overdose.

    TCAs are broken down by the liver enzyme CYP1A2, which also metabolises caffeine. The competition between the two can slow drug breakdown, increasing side-effects, or delay caffeine clearance, making you feel jittery or wired longer than usual.

    Clozapine, an antipsychotic, is also processed by CYP1A2. One study showed that drinking two-to-three cups of coffee could increase blood levels of clozapine by up to 97%, potentially increasing risks such as drowsiness, confusion, or more serious complications.

    4. Painkillers

    Some over-the-counter painkillers, such as those containing aspirin or paracetamol, include added caffeine. Coffee can speed up how quickly these drugs are absorbed by accelerating how fast the stomach empties and making the stomach more acidic, which improves absorption for some medications such as aspirin.

    While this may help painkillers work faster, it could also raise the risk of side-effects like stomach irritation or bleeding, especially when combined with other sources of caffeine. Though no serious cases have been reported, caution is still advised.

    5. Heart medications

    Caffeine can temporarily raise blood pressure and heart rate, typically lasting three-to-four hours after consumption. For people taking blood pressure medication or drugs that control irregular heart rhythms (arrhythmias), this may counteract the intended effects of the medication.

    This doesn’t mean people with heart conditions must avoid coffee altogether – but they should monitor how it affects their symptoms, and consider limiting intake or switching to decaf if needed.

    What can you do?

    Coffee may be part of your daily routine, but it’s also a potent chemical compound that can influence how your body processes medicine. Here’s how to make sure it doesn’t interfere.

    Take levothyroxine or bisphosphonates on an empty stomach with water, and wait 30-60 minutes before drinking coffee or eating breakfast.

    Be cautious with cold and flu remedies, asthma treatments and ADHD medications, as caffeine can amplify side-effects.

    If you’re on antidepressants, antipsychotics, or blood pressure drugs, discuss your caffeine habits with your doctor.

    Consider reducing intake or choosing a decaffeinated option if you experience side-effects like restlessness, insomnia or heart palpitations.

    Everyone metabolises caffeine differently – some people feel fine after three cups, while others get side-effects after just one. Pay attention to how your body responds and talk to your pharmacist or GP if anything feels off.

    If you’re ever unsure whether your medicine and your coffee are a good match, ask your pharmacist or doctor. A short conversation might save you weeks of side-effects or reduced treatment effectiveness – and help you enjoy your brew with peace of mind.

    Dipa Kamdar, Senior Lecturer in Pharmacy Practice, Kingston University

    This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

  • Cillian Murphy’s Role in the ’28 Years Later’ Trilogy Is Coming Later Than We Hoped

    Cillian Murphy’s Role in the ’28 Years Later’ Trilogy Is Coming Later Than We Hoped

    Cillian Murphy is set to make his eventual return to the world of 28 Days Later within the upcoming trilogy that 28 Years Later will kick off this summer, but there are a few catches.

    Director Danny Boyle (Trainspotting) revealed vague details about the Oscar-winning Oppenheimer actor’s involvement to IGN. The upcoming trilogy expands on the world Boyle and Alex Garland (Civil War) started with 28 Days Later and its star Cillian Murphy, with a new set of interconnected stories. However, Murphy will not appear in the first film as it introduces a new central character: Spike, a 12-year-old boy portrayed by Alfie Williams whose family (led by Jodie Comer and Aaron Taylor-Johnson) finds itself in the thick of the post-apocalyptic zombie outbreak.

    “Although each story completes itself, there’s a handover section to the next film as well. So it’s very ambitious. We haven’t got the money for the third one yet. It will depend how the first one does, I guess,” Boyle shared and explained that Murphy’s return is contingent on how the first two movies do.

    “But hopefully if we do ok, they’ll give us the go-ahead for the money and for the third one. Everybody’s standing by for that, really. Including Cillian,” the director confirmed regarding Murphy’s participation.

    Currently it’s planned that he will make an appearance at the end of the Nia DaCosta (Candyman)-directed follow-up 28 Years Later: The Bone Temple, which picks up on the immediate continuation of events from Boyle’s upcoming reboot sequel and is slated to open in theaters next January.

    “He is in the second one,” Boyle revealed, “I shouldn’t give away too much. I’ll get killed.” But we can guess that his appearance will only tease the potential of the third film, which Sony has yet to confirm.

    Boyle continued, “You know that thing about sequels, you want to push it on and take huge risks.”

    “I have to say fair play to [studio Sony Pictures]. They did allow us to take great liberties with [28 Years Later]. They could have said, ‘Oh no, it needs to be more sequel-y. You need to rely on some of the ideas that are in the original. And what do you mean Cillian’s not going to appear in the first one? I thought you said Cillian was going to be in it.’ We said, ‘Yeah, Cillian is going to be in it, but not quite the first one.’ So fair play to them. They’ve put up with a lot.”

    28 Years Later opens June 20.

    Want more io9 news? Check out when to expect the latest Marvel, Star Wars, and Star Trek releases, what’s next for the DC Universe on film and TV, and everything you need to know about the future of Doctor Who.